|
on Environmental Economics |
|
Issue of 2016‒10‒16
thirty-six papers chosen by Francisco S. Ramos Universidade Federal de Pernambuco |
| By: | Agisilaos Economou (National Technical University of Athens); Roido Mitoula (Harokopio University) |
| Abstract: | Coastal urban areas face a number of environmental problems. They have implemented policies for solving these problems, which aimed at sustainable development and the general quality of life of residents. In the context of sustainable development of urban centers, the European Policy has exercised great influence through European projects and other actions.This research refers to the coastal urban area of Vouliagmeni in Attica region. Specifically, companies, tourism development, projects and actions that have been carried out for the sustainable development of the area as well as the measures of environmental protection are investigated. To conduct this study a method of personal interviews with the local authorities and an in situ research took place.The results showed that Vouliagmeni has considerable natural resources as well as a number of economic and environmental problems. As a result, the natural resources threatened by degradation. The major economic problems that the country has faced over the past few years, have affected to some extent the projects and actions of local authorities, which aimed at the coastal area management, at further development and general protection. The adjustment of the local community to new economic situation is necessary to ensure the sustainable development of the area. |
| Keywords: | Environmental management, coastal urban area, Vouliagmeni |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:sek:iacpro:4106732&r=env |
| By: | Alex Bowen; Emanuele Campiglio; Sara Herreras Martinez |
| Abstract: | This study employs a number of Integrated Assessment Models to determine what the optimal financial transfers between high-income and developing economies would be if climate mitigation effort, measured as mitigation costs as a share of gross domestic product, were to be divided equally across regions through a global carbon market. We find these to be larger than both current and planned international climate finance flows. Four out of six models imply that a North–South annual financial transfer of around US$400 billion is required by 2050, while the other two models imply larger sums, up to $2 trillion. However, the outlook for multi-country carbon markets is not encouraging at the moment. We thus review some potential sources of funds that might be used to fill the climate finance gap, including public aid, private investment, development banks, and special climate-related facilities. We find the shortcomings of public climate finance appear particularly hard to overcome, and argue that expanding private finance, either in the form of Foreign Direct Investment or through the issuance of ‘green bonds’, appears to be a more promising direction. Policy relevance Climate change is a profoundly asymmetric development issue, as countries at lower stages of development are likely to suffer disproportionate climate damages and mitigation costs. High-income countries have agreed to mobilise $100 billion a year by 2020 ‘to address the needs of developing countries’. However, scaling up climate finance has been slow and, more importantly, targets have not been chosen on the basis of a ‘scientific’ assessment. This article presents a novel, model-based analysis of the ‘equal effort’ inter-regional climate finance that could provide useful insights to policy makers in future negotiations. The gap identified by comparing models’ projections to current and planned financial flows is large but not prohibitive. In particular, private investment appears to be the most likely channel to fill the gap, although various public policies need to be implemented to improve the risk/return profile of low-carbon investment opportunities. |
| Keywords: | carbon market; climate finance; equitable development; integrated assessment models; North-South flows |
| JEL: | F30 Q54 Q56 |
| Date: | 2015 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ehl:lserod:64108&r=env |
| By: | Sebastien Desbureaux (CERDI - Centre d'études et de recherches sur le developpement international - Université d'Auvergne - Clermont-Ferrand I - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique); Eric Nazindigouba Kere (CERDI - Centre d'études et de recherches sur le developpement international - Université d'Auvergne - Clermont-Ferrand I - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique); Pascale Combes Motel (CERDI - Centre d'études et de recherches sur le developpement international - Université d'Auvergne - Clermont-Ferrand I - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique) |
| Abstract: | This paper analyzes deforestation leakages from natural rainforests to anthropized habitats following the creation of Protected Areas in Madagascar. A simple theoretical framework highlights that a conservation constraint does not necessarily create deforestation leakages on secondary forests. An original dataset is built combining fine scale vegetation cover images and spatialized census data over the period 2000 to 2012. Cover images allow us to distinguish a mosaic of landscapes. Multilevel panel regressions and matching techniques indicate a causal effect of Protected Areas on deforestation leakages. Though Protected Areas reduce deforestation in protected natural forests, forest clearing is mostly reported on other types of anthropized forests. Our results demonstrate the limitations of Porter-like mechanism in agricultural innovation. They also support the hypothesis of a conservation dilemma: protecting biodiversity may come at the expense of the welfare of locals who rely on local (provisioning) ecosystem services. |
| Keywords: | Land use patterns,Environmental policies,Agricultural innovation. |
| Date: | 2016–07–05 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:wpaper:halshs-01342182&r=env |
| By: | Alexander Gocht (Institute of Farm Economics, Johann Heinrich von Thünen Institute); Pavel Ciaian (European Commission – JRC); Maria Bielza (European Commission – JRC); Jean-Michel Terres (European Commission – JRC); Norbert Röder (Institute of Farm Economics, Johann Heinrich von Thünen Institute); Mihaly Himics (European Commission – JRC); Guna Salputra (European Commission – JRC) |
| Abstract: | In this report we analyse the economic and environmental impacts of CAP greening introduced by the 2013 CAP reform. We use the CAPRI farm-type layer, an extension of CAPRI by farm group module capturing farm heterogeneity across the EU. Its main advantage in the context of our analysis is that it allows the current implementation of the CAP greening measures to be depicted in high detail, while also capturing the environmental effects and the market feedback of the simulated policy changes. The simulated results reveal that the economic impacts (land use, production, price and income changes) of CAP greening are rather small, although some farm types, sectors (fallow land and pulses) or Member States may be affected more significantly. Simulation results show that the CAP greening will lead to a simultaneous small increase in prices and a small decrease in production. The latter impact is due to the greening obligations that require farms to take out of production a small share of land and to the slight reduction in farm productivity driven by the land reallocation effects of greening measures. Farm income slightly increases because the price effects offset the production decline. The results indicate that EFA and grassland measures tend to induce slightly higher economic effects relative to the crop diversification measure, nevertheless some variation across crops and economic indicators is observed. Similarly to economic effects, the environmental impacts of CAP greening are small, although some regions may see greater effects than others. In general, effects at EU level are positive on a per hectare basis, but the increase in UAA can reverse the sign for total impacts. Overall, simulated GHG and ammonia emissions decrease in the EU, while the total N surplus, soil erosion and biodiversity-friendly farming practices indicator slightly increase due to the CAP greening. The crop diversification measure tends to have the lowest environmental impacts, while the grassland measure has mixed (both positive and negative) effects on the reported environmental indicators. The EFA measures have positive impacts on most environmental indicators, except for soil erosion. |
| Keywords: | CAP reform, CAP greening, crop diversification, maintenance of permanent grassland, ecological focus area, EU, economic and environmental impacts, CAPRI, farm types, farm model |
| JEL: | Q11 Q12 Q18 Q51 |
| Date: | 2016–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ipt:iptwpa:jrc102519&r=env |
| By: | GOKHAN AKANDERE (SELCUK UNIVERSITY) |
| Abstract: | Due to the inevitable effect that businesses are living organisms, the concepts of sustainability and green have become the main values for many businesses. Today, the concept of sustainable green warehouse is commonly related with integration, balancing and management of economic, environmental and social inputs and outputs of operations in warehouses with green buildings. Sustainable green warehouse can be defined as the cluster of technological and organisational solutions designed for the efficiency of warehouse processes by maintaining the highest social standards and minimizing the effect on nature in terms of financial efficiency. However, businesses are aware that it is difficult to get effective and efficient warehousing and distribution services as third party logistics (3PL) for flows in supply chain in the present business environment. In this context, companies offering warehousing and distribution services should have values that provide them with competition advantage, increase their brand equities, and decrease operation costs such as green buildings, lighting systems with motion and time sensors, automatic handlings equipment that uses renewable energy, natural ventilating systems, solar panels, water treatment systems, ISO standards, and 5S philosophy. In near future, it will be understood that maintaining economic and operational efficiency, minimising damage to environment, and creating appropriate working environments can only be possible, and permanent via efficient management of green warehouses. The present study investigates the practice of sustainability principles in terms of warehouse, warehousing and distribution management. This paper explores the GWM practices and performance of the business an empirical analysis of logistic enterprises within Turkey. |
| Keywords: | Green warehouse management, Green warehousing, Performance, Environment, Green Economy |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:sek:iacpro:4106594&r=env |
| By: | Dragan Ilic (University of Basel, Switzerland); Janick Christian Mollet (ETH Zurich, Switzerland) |
| Abstract: | The rationale of voluntary corporate initiatives is often explained with anticipation of future regulation. We test this hypothesis for the Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX) and the Climate Leaders (CL), two popular voluntary US environmental programs to curb carbon emission that were operating during a decisive regulatory event. In 2009 the Waxman-Markey Bill surprisingly passed the House of Representatives and brought the US economy a big step closer to a nationwide CO2 emission trading system. In an event study we assess how the stock market adjusted prices when the likelihood of CO2 regulation unexpectedly increased. We develop a simple model to investigate the empirical results. Our findings suggest that only membership in the CCX was considered beneficial, an initiative whose market oriented design happened to dovetail with the bill’s. Earlier stock market reactions to membership announcements in these voluntary programs paint a complementary picture. But membership alone cannot account for the entire price adjustments. Our results show that a substantial part of the market reaction can be traced back to industry-wide effects. |
| Keywords: | Voluntary markets, permit markets, climate change, greenhouse gas emissions, CO2, corporate social responsibility, shareholder wealth |
| JEL: | G38 Q53 Q54 Q58 |
| Date: | 2016–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:eth:wpswif:16-261&r=env |
| By: | Jayne, T.S.; Sitko, Nicholas J.; Mason, Nicole M.; Skole, David |
| Abstract: | Climate smart agriculture (CSA) has emerged as an approach to enhance the resilience of farming systems to the effects of climate change. CSA is defined by three principle objectives: 1) sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes; 2) adapting and building resilience to climate change; and 3) reducing and/or removing greenhouse gases emissions, where possible. |
| Keywords: | Environmental Economics and Policy, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, |
| Date: | 2016–07 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:midcpb:245906&r=env |
| By: | Marion Dupoux (University Paris Ouest Nanterre La Défense, EconomiX) |
| Abstract: | Land use change (LUC) is the second human-induced source of greenhouse gases (GHG). This paper warns about the LUC time-accounting failure in internalizing GHG impacts in economic appraisal (within policies). This emerges from (i) relative carbon prices commonly following the Hotelling rule as if climate change were regarded as an exhaustible resource problem and (ii) a uniform annualization (i.e. constant flows over time) of LUC impacts supported by most energy policies. First, carbon prices time evolution should account for the climate change framework specificities (natural carbon absorption, uncertainty), which makes a departure from the Hotelling rule necessary. Second, there is a carbon dynamic after land conversion: GHG impact flows are strictly decreasing over time. With a theoretical framework, I show that the employment of the uniform annualization, within a benefit-cost analysis, enhances both the discounting overwhelming effect and the carbon price increase, whatever the type of impact (emissions or sequestrations). It results in skewed values of LUC-related projects as long as relative carbon prices deviate from the Hotelling rule. I apply this framework to global warming impacts of bioethanol in France and quantify this bias. In particular, carbon profitability payback periods under the uniform approach do not reflect the LUC effective carbon investment. This potentially modifies the conclusions regarding a project’s achievement of imposed environmental criteria. |
| Keywords: | benefit-cost analysis, land use change, relative carbon price, discounting, global warming |
| JEL: | D61 H43 Q15 Q48 Q54 |
| Date: | 2016–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fae:wpaper:2016.25&r=env |
| By: | Timothy Halliday (Department of Economics, University of Hawaii); John Lynham (Department of Economics, University of Hawaii); Aureo de Paula (UCL, S~aoPauloSchoolofEconomics) |
| Abstract: | The negative consequences of long-term exposure to particulate pollution are well established but many studies find no effect of short-term exposure on health outcomes. The high correlation of industrial pollutant emissions complicates the estimation of the impact of individual pollutants on health. In this study, we use emissions from Kilauea volcano, which are uncorrelated with other pollution sources, to estimate the impact of pollutants on local emergency room (ER) admissions and a precise measure of costs. A one standard deviation increase in particulates leads to a 23-36% increase in expenditures on ER visits for pulmonary outcomes, mostly among the very young. Even in an area where air quality is well within the safety guidelines of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, this estimate is much larger than those in the existing literature on the short term effects of particulates. No strong effects for cardiovascular outcomes are found. |
| Keywords: | Pollution, Health, Volcano, Particulates, SO2 |
| JEL: | H51 I12 Q51 Q53 |
| Date: | 2016–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hai:wpaper:201620&r=env |
| By: | Mariana Conte Grand |
| Abstract: | This short article addresses four issues. First, it summarizes transparency provisions discussed in the latest Conferences of the Parties (COP19 to COP21) of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). From that recompilation, it is possible to conclude that the UNFCCC moves towards the establishment of stricter transparency requirements for national climate policies. The second topic is a description of the main greenhouse gases reduction metrics, the information needed to make them equivalent, and a summary of advantages and limitations that may determine the choice of a given GHG target form over another. The third issue is a description of the facts. This is, what percentage of world´s countries chose each type of target and what were the national characteristics that seem to have an impact on targets´ metric choice. Finally, a difference is established between transparency and uncertainty characteristics of each nationally determined contribution form. |
| Date: | 2016–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cem:doctra:595&r=env |
| By: | Alban Kitous (European Commission – JRC); Kimon Keramidas (European Commission – JRC); Toon Vandyck (European Commission – JRC); Bert Saveyn (European Commission – JRC) |
| Abstract: | This report examines the effects on greenhouse gases emissions and energy markets of a Reference scenario where current trends continue beyond 2020, of two scenarios where the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions have been included, and of a 2°C scenario in line with keeping global warming below the limits agreed in international negotiations. The report presents an updated version of the modelling work that supported by DG CLIMA in the UNFCCC negotiations that resulted in the Paris Agreement of the COP21 in December 2015. In the Reference scenario, emissions trigger global warming above 3°C. In the INDC scenarios, regions adopt domestic policies that result in global changes in emissions and energy use, and would result in the long term in a global warming around 3°C; the INDCs cover 28-44% of the cumulated emissions reductions necessary to remain below a 2°C warming. In the 2°C scenario, all regions realise domestic emission cuts to stay below 2°C, with various profiles in 2020-2050 depending on their national characteristics. Reduction of non-CO2 emissions (34% in 2030), energy efficiency (20%) and the deployment of renewable energies (20%) are the main options contributing in the mitigation effort. A significant number of regions draw economic benefits from shifting their expenditures on fossil energy imports to investments. GDP growth rates are marginally affected in most regions by global efforts to reduce emissions. Crucially, high growth rates are maintained in fast-growing low-income regions. Delaying actions to stay below 2°C add large economic costs. The analysis uses the POLES and GEM-E3 models in a framework where economic welfare is maximised while tackling climate change. |
| Keywords: | Climate, mitigation, GHG emissions, energy, international negotiations, COP21, Road to Paris, IPCC, UNFCCC, modelling, GEM-E3, POLES |
| JEL: | C68 Q43 |
| Date: | 2016–07 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ipt:iptwpa:jrc101899&r=env |
| By: | Amy J. Pickering; Benjamin F. Arnold; Holly N. Dentz; John M. Colford Jr.; Clair Null |
| Abstract: | This article summarizes reasons for mandating independent monitoring of greenhouse gas emission reduction projects. |
| Keywords: | Climate, Low-Income Countries, Kenya, International |
| JEL: | F Z |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:mpr:mprres:f9b358a811634e0884495f6e4a6bb173&r=env |
| By: | Anonymous; Wigier, Marek; Wieliczko, Barbara |
| Abstract: | Sovereignty, Food Security and Sustainable Development: Environmental and Economic Challenges. Environmental consulting as a factor of agricultural development in Serbia. The CAP 2004-2013 direct payment scheme’s impact on sustainability of agriculture in Lithuania. Economic and social preconditions of development in the Czech rural areas: acceleration of global influence and local changes. Impact of economics and agriculture over the environmental protection in Bulgaria. An assessment of the impacts of reducing ammonia emissions from livestock farming by covering existing manure storage facilities in Hungary. Animal and vegetable waste development in agriculture, food processing and households of the European Union. Resilience of Romanian agriculture – an overview. Priorities of sustainable development of agriculture and rural areas within the region of eastern Serbia. Expected changes of farmers innovation activity in 2014-2020. Investment attractiveness of bioeconomy: case of Ukraine. Competitiveness and comparative advantages of Ukraine’s agriculture sector in trade with the European Union. Ukrainian agricultural products competitiveness on European market in time of financial challenges. |
| Keywords: | sovereignty, food security, sustainable development, environmental, economic challenges, agricultural development, direct payment, sustainability of agriculture, economic preconditions, social preconditions, rural areas, ammonia emissions, livestock farming, food processing, European Union, Romanian agriculture, sustainable development, farmers innovation activity, investment attractiveness, bioeconomy, competitiveness, agriculture sector, trade, agricultural products, European market, Agribusiness, Agricultural and Food Policy, Agricultural Finance, Production Economics, Productivity Analysis, |
| Date: | 2016 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:iafepr:245707&r=env |
| By: | CYRIL BUTCHER (SCHOOL OF TAXATION AND BUSINESS LAW, UNSW AUSTRALIA) |
| Abstract: | The Chinese government has among its critical policies two clear policy imperatives – 1. to protect and improve its natural environment and 2. to encourage membership of agricultural cooperatives and ensure their development. On one hand, there can be a tension between these two objectives, as an increase in agricultural cooperatives could lead to greater environmental degradation through more damaging farming methods such as greater mechanisation and increased use of chemical fertilisers. On the other hand, there are potential synergies between the two goals as well-operated cooperatives can bring environmental benefits through such improvements as efficiencies of scale, more sophisticated farming practices and greater education on soil and water conservation. This paper examines, with a primary focus on tax policy, the Chinese government’s role in setting where the balance between these two potential outcomes – tension or synergy - will ultimately fall. The paper describes the history of agricultural cooperatives in China and considers why the Chinese government would wish to encourage their development. It then, with a view to identifying what incentives the government might offer, considers what factors motivate farmers to join cooperatives. It considers the role of tax policies, drawing on case studies from three provinces at different stages of development for insights on the impact of local variations, and examines the recently introduced draft Environmental Tax Law and considers what part it could play in the role of agricultural cooperatives in environmental protection. |
| Keywords: | ChinaEnvironmentTax PolicyAgricultural cooperatives |
| JEL: | K34 K32 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:sek:iacpro:4106650&r=env |
| By: | Clément Bonnet |
| Abstract: | The invention and the diffusion of environmental process of production and consumption goods are impeded by two market failures: the first on environment and the second on knowledge. The question arises whether the instruments aiming at correcting these market failures should be jointly designed or not. We investigate this question for a major instrument of support to innovation: the patent system. We demonstrate that a patent system and a discriminating environmental taxation that are jointly defined provide for a greater efficiency. We conclude that the two externalities interact with each other through the patent system. |
| Keywords: | environmental innovation, double externality, patent policy. |
| JEL: | D62 D83 H23 |
| Date: | 2016 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:drm:wpaper:2016-34&r=env |
| By: | Lucas Bretschger (ETH Zurich, Switzerland) |
| Abstract: | The paper develops an integrated baseline model to assess the trade-offs be- tween the natural environment and economic growth. Consumption growth is considered under welfare and sustainability aspects. The framework features capital accumulation and the sectoral structure of the economy as key elements to cope with resource scarcity and pollution. Model extensions varying the num- ber of sectors and inputs, changing central functional forms, and introducing poor input substitution and population growth are presented. The setup high- lights the dual role of used inputs as a source of environmental problems and a part of the solution; it also discusses uncertainty and momentum effects. The paper concludes that the environment and economic growth can be compatible but that small deviations from the optimal paths my entail unsustainable de- velopment. Critical issues for sustainability are insufficient foresight, increasing damage intensity, and suboptimal policy making while population growth and poor input substitution are not necessarily precarious for future development. |
| Keywords: | Natural environment, endogenous growth, multisector model, poor substitution, population growth |
| JEL: | Q43 O47 Q56 O41 |
| Date: | 2016–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:eth:wpswif:16-260&r=env |
| By: | Johanna Choumert (EDI - Economic Development Initiatives - Economic Development Initiatives [EDI]); Pascale Phelinas (CERDI [CERDI] - CERDI - CNRS [CNRS]) |
| Abstract: | This paper explores the long term sustainability of Argentina’s specialization in genetically modified soybean cultivation. It is conceived as an evidence-based assessment of the most relevant economic, social, and environmental, implications of the “soybeanization” of Argentinian agriculture. We combine 2 sources of primary and secondary quantitative data: the National Agricultural Census, and farm level data from a field survey carried out in 2 provinces of the Argentinian Pampas. Our results suggest a major conflict between the success of the “soybeanization” of Argentinian agriculture measured in terms of production and profit records, and the social, economic, and environmental sustainability of this new model of production. GM soybean package adoption has increased farm productivity, and has reduced the costs per unit produced. The resulting dramatic increase in profits constituted a strong incentive to extend the scale of production. The development of companies comprising actors from both agricultural and non-agricultural sectors, constituted a good way to extend the scale of production. But this technological innovation in agriculture has been the source of numerous criticisms. It is widely held among Argentinian researchers, in particular, that soybean expansion has increased land inequality and displaced labor. However overall we find a mixed empirical picture of changing land distribution patterns and labor displacement resulting from the soybean expansion. The environmental implications of agricultural biotechnology are alarming, and the long-term sustainability of GM crops can seriously be questioned. In a context where GM soybean production has become one of the strategic components of Argentina’s economy, as well as in the country’s international positioning, our results suggest that it is highly unlikely that the government will implement policies against this precious crop and its by-products. However, promoting sustainable agricultural growth has become not only desirable, but necessary. |
| Keywords: | Sustainability, GM soybean,Latin America, Argentina, Agribusiness |
| Date: | 2016–08–25 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:wpaper:halshs-01356209&r=env |
| By: | Mouez Fodha (PSE - Paris School of Economics, LEO - Laboratoire d'économie d'Orleans - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - UO - Université d'Orléans) |
| Abstract: | This article analyzes the long-term consequences of nuclear waste storage within a general equilibrium framework. The objective is to determine the conditions for which the storage of waste, and thus the transfer of externalities towards the future, can be optimal. These conditions could explain the implementation of intergenerational externalities, justifying an intertemporal Not In My Back Yard behaviour. We first show that the choice of the policy instruments determines the feasibility of the storage policy. Indeed, economic stability imposes precise levels of the rate of storage or of the tax rate, making it possible to avoid chaotic economic dynamics. Under these specific conditions, and depending on the period at which an accident may occur and on the value of the social discount rate, we show that storing all the nuclear waste may be optimal. |
| Keywords: | Q58,Q53,Overlapping Generations Model,Nuclear Waste,Environmental Externalities JEL Classifications: O13 |
| Date: | 2015 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:journl:insu-01105358&r=env |
| By: | Mohamad Taghvaee, Vahid; Mavuka, Clever; Khodaparast Shirazi, Jalil |
| Abstract: | Iran experiences a high level of energy consumption which is threatening not only economically but also politically and environmentally. This study aims to estimate the relationship between the economic growth with the various kinds of energies, non-hydroelectric, renewable, non-renewable, and total energies in Iran during 1967–2012, using an autoregressive distributed lags (ARDL) model. The results show the ineffective relationship between the economic growth and energy consumption in Iran, considering non-hydroelectric energy, renewable energy, non-renewable energy, and total energy, one by one as the energy proxy. It implies the ineffectiveness of both the quantitative and qualitative deflationary policies over the energy sector. In another word, neither decreasing energy consumption nor changing energy portfolio affects the economic growth. Therefore, the policy makers are advised to formulate those policies which reduce the quantity of energy consumption or increase the segment of renewable energies in the portfolio of energy consumption because they do not lead to the considerable negative consequence on the economic growth, while they increase both the environmental quality and energy security. |
| Keywords: | Economic growth; Energy consumption; Renewable energies; Non-renewable energies; Iran |
| JEL: | Q4 |
| Date: | 2016 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:74323&r=env |
| By: | Gilles Debizet (PACTE - Politiques publiques, ACtion politique, TErritoires - UPMF - Université Pierre Mendès France - Grenoble 2 - UJF - Université Joseph Fourier - Grenoble 1 - IEPG - Sciences Po Grenoble - Institut d'études politiques de Grenoble - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - UGA - Université Grenoble Alpes); Caroline Gauthier (Grenoble Ecole de Management - Grenoble École de Management (GEM)); Stéphane La Branche (PACTE - Politiques publiques, ACtion politique, TErritoires - UPMF - Université Pierre Mendès France - Grenoble 2 - UJF - Université Joseph Fourier - Grenoble 1 - IEPG - Sciences Po Grenoble - Institut d'études politiques de Grenoble - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - UGA - Université Grenoble Alpes); Philippe Menanteau (équipe EDDEN - PACTE - Politiques publiques, ACtion politique, TErritoires - UPMF - Université Pierre Mendès France - Grenoble 2 - UJF - Université Joseph Fourier - Grenoble 1 - IEPG - Sciences Po Grenoble - Institut d'études politiques de Grenoble - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - UGA - Université Grenoble Alpes); Valérie Ambroise-Renault (Chercheur Indépendant); Odile Blanchard (équipe EDDEN - PACTE - Politiques publiques, ACtion politique, TErritoires - UPMF - Université Pierre Mendès France - Grenoble 2 - UJF - Université Joseph Fourier - Grenoble 1 - IEPG - Sciences Po Grenoble - Institut d'études politiques de Grenoble - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - UGA - Université Grenoble Alpes); Sylvie Blanco (Grenoble Ecole de Management - Grenoble École de Management (GEM)); Nicolas Buclet (PACTE - Politiques publiques, ACtion politique, TErritoires - UPMF - Université Pierre Mendès France - Grenoble 2 - UJF - Université Joseph Fourier - Grenoble 1 - IEPG - Sciences Po Grenoble - Institut d'études politiques de Grenoble - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - UGA - Université Grenoble Alpes); Antoine Dore (PACTE - Politiques publiques, ACtion politique, TErritoires - UPMF - Université Pierre Mendès France - Grenoble 2 - UJF - Université Joseph Fourier - Grenoble 1 - IEPG - Sciences Po Grenoble - Institut d'études politiques de Grenoble - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - UGA - Université Grenoble Alpes); Fabrice Forest (INNOVACS); Bettina Gilomen (Grenoble Ecole de Management - Grenoble École de Management (GEM)); Olivier Labussiere (PACTE - Politiques publiques, ACtion politique, TErritoires - UPMF - Université Pierre Mendès France - Grenoble 2 - UJF - Université Joseph Fourier - Grenoble 1 - IEPG - Sciences Po Grenoble - Institut d'études politiques de Grenoble - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - UGA - Université Grenoble Alpes); Xavier Long (PACTE - Politiques publiques, ACtion politique, TErritoires - UPMF - Université Pierre Mendès France - Grenoble 2 - UJF - Université Joseph Fourier - Grenoble 1 - IEPG - Sciences Po Grenoble - Institut d'études politiques de Grenoble - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - UGA - Université Grenoble Alpes); Patrice Schneuwly (CEA/LITEN/DTNM/LT - CEA - Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives, CEA-LITEN-DTS); Antoine Tabourdeau (PACTE - Politiques publiques, ACtion politique, TErritoires - UPMF - Université Pierre Mendès France - Grenoble 2 - UJF - Université Joseph Fourier - Grenoble 1 - IEPG - Sciences Po Grenoble - Institut d'études politiques de Grenoble - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - UGA - Université Grenoble Alpes) |
| Abstract: | Funded by ADEME (French Environment and Energy Management Agency) the NEXUS project aims at identifying innovations in energy storage and management (especially of intermittent renewables) at the level of eco-districts or city blocks. The multidisciplinary analysis involves technological, sociological, economic, city planning and political dimensions 1. The research analyses socio-energy nodes (SEN) at district or block level. SENs are seen as the place of the coordination among district stakeholders, from real estate, energy and city planning actors to constructors or investors. Deploying appropriate technical systems, SENs are supposed to be more or less replicable from a territory to another. The project studies the arrangement and deployment conditions of SENs at district level and describes them through a portfolio of contrasted scenarios (including smart grids) in view of a 2040 goal of dividing greenhouse gases by 4. These scenarios will propose visions of districts or blocks able to smoothen energy intermittencies, using assumptions about economic constraints, technological capacities, regulatory context and political decisions at local and national scales. |
| Keywords: | Ecodistrict,Planning,Coordination,Renewable energies integration,Energy |
| Date: | 2014–09–20 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:journl:hal-01133254&r=env |
| By: | Wilson, Daniel J. (Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco) |
| Abstract: | The effects of weather on the economy, outside of agriculture, have been surprisingly understudied. This paper exploits vast granular local data on employment and weather – with over 10 million county-industry-month observations – to estimate dynamic panel data (DPD) models of weather’s short-run effects. The estimates from this model provide an in-depth understanding of exactly how weather affects the economy at the local level. Temperature (by season), precipitation, snowfall, and the frequency of very hot and very cold days within a month are found to have significant effects on local employment growth. The effects are generally transitory, with some key exceptions, and vary substantially across industries and regions. The fitted county DPD model then is used to generate estimates of the total weather effect on national employment growth. I evaluate the in-sample and out-of-sample explanatory power of these estimates, compared with estimates from a national time-series model. While the estimated weather effects from the national time-series model yield a better in-sample fit, the estimated effects from the nationally-aggregated county DPD model provide a better out-of-sample fit. |
| JEL: | J21 Q54 R11 |
| Date: | 2016–09–30 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fip:fedfwp:2016-21&r=env |
| By: | Luiz H C Mattoso (Embrapa Instrumentation) |
| Abstract: | There is a great potential for using bio-based feedstocks and waste to develop new materials for a wide range of applications, in industries sectors such as chemical, automobile, electronic and others. This responds to a great demand for substituting petroleum-based resources for renewable ones. Besides contributing to the carbon sequestration, these new materials can also lead to products that are environmentally more friendly, such as biodegradable plastics, which are essential for a sustainable bioeconomy approach. In this presentation, it will be shown several techniques for developing new materials from renewable sources, including continuous casting and solution blow spinning. Their applications in bio-plastics, edible films, bionanocomposites, sensors, biosensors, tissue engineering, regenerative medicine and controlled release systems for fertilizers, pesticides and pharmaceuticals will be also discussed. |
| Keywords: | Bioeconomy, green chemistry, bio-based products, renewable resources, sustainability, new materials |
| JEL: | Q00 Q16 Q01 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:sek:iacpro:4106699&r=env |
| By: | Lemeilleur, S.; Subervie, J.; Presoto, A.E.; de Castro Souza, R.; Macchione Saes, M.S. |
| Abstract: | We survey Brazilian coffee farmers’ preferences for attributes of voluntary sustainability standards using a choice experiment. We collected original data from 250 coffee farmers who live in the state of Minas Gerais who were asked to choose from several hypothetical buying contracts for eco-certified coffee. Our results suggest that both cash and non-cash payments may motivate farmers to participate in sustainability standard certification schemes that require improved agricultural practices. Preferences for non-cash rewards such as long-term formal contracts or technical assistance, however, appear highly heterogeneous. Results more-over show that the minimum willingness-to-accept for the adoption of composting is twice as high as the average price premium for certified coffee in the current context, which may partly explain why most coffee farmers continue to be reluctant to enter the most stringent eco-certification schemes such as the organic standard. ....French Abstract: Dans cet article, nous étudions les préférences des producteurs de café brésiliens pour les attributs des standards volontaires de durabilité, par une méthode d’expérimentation des choix. Nous avons collecté des données originales auprès de 250 producteurs de café de l'État du Minas Gerais, invités à choisir parmi plusieurs contrats d'achat hypothétiques exigeant l'amélioration des pratiques agricoles. Nos résultats suggèrent que les paiements monétaires et non monétaires peuvent inciter les agriculteurs à participer à des standards de durabilité certifiés. Néanmoins, les préférences pour les récompenses non monétaires, tels que les contrats formels de long terme ou l’assistance technique, apparaissent très hétérogènes. De plus, les résultats montrent que la prime de consentement à adopter le compost comme moyen de fertilisation est deux fois plus élevé que la prime maximum actuelle pour le café certifié. Ceci peut expliquer en partie la raison pour laquelle la plupart des producteurs de café continuent d'être réticents à entrer dans des systèmes de certification exigeant comme le standard d’agriculture biologique. |
| Keywords: | VOLUNTARY SUSTAINABILITY STANDARDS; CERTIFICATION; COFFEE; CHOICE EXPERIMENT; PESTICIDES; COMPOST; EROSION; BRAZIL; STANDARDS VOLONTAIRES DE DURABILITE; METHODE D’EXPERIMENTATION DES CHOIX; COMPOST; EROSION; BRESIL |
| JEL: | Q01 Q15 Q57 |
| Date: | 2016 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:umr:wpaper:201604&r=env |
| By: | Mofya-Mukuka, Rhoda; Simoloka, Asunta |
| Abstract: | Forest foods can play a vital role in maintaining balance and variety in people’s diets by providing foods of different food groups and supplying diverse foods within a food group. A study in Eastern province found that not all food groups are supplied by the forests. Food groups provided by the forests in the area are non-starchy vegetables, non-starchy fruits and proteins. There is at least one forest food in each meal in addition to the wild fruits consumed as snacks. |
| Keywords: | Agricultural and Food Policy, International Development, |
| Date: | 2016–03 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:midcpb:245911&r=env |
| By: | Aithal, Sreeramana; Shenoy, Varun |
| Abstract: | Campus Placements as we know today is a process involving interview of college students by recruiting companies utilizing institutional resources towards candidate job selection. The same campus placements which are being traditionally conducted by the arrival of HR Team to campus, their pre-placement talk about company and job description with the gradual interview rounds is slowly beginning to shift its perspectives towards a more greener stature. Especially now with the application of modern technology in hiring practices like E-Recruiting or On-line Recruitment, the entire campus recruitment process is also poised to leap towards a rapid change. Therefore, this research paper aims to construct an ideal strategy towards implementing campus placement process in parallel lines of E-Recruiting as well but with a more environment-friendly approach. This on-line campus placement process termed as 'Green Placements' will thrive as a conceptual model focused on to reduce resource wastages, save water, time, space, electricity by preserving the surrounding environment clean and green whilst the placement activity is being conducted at the college. |
| Keywords: | Green Placements, Green Innovations, Campus Placements, Green Strategy |
| JEL: | M51 M59 |
| Date: | 2016–09–03 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:74349&r=env |
| By: | Audi, Marc; Ali, Amjad |
| Abstract: | This study has investigated the impact of energy consumption, financial development, economic development, population density and secondary school education on environmental degradation in Lebanon over the period of 1974 to 2014. ADF unit root test and ARDL bound test method of co-integration have been used for empirical analysis. The results show that energy consumption, financial development and population density have positive and significant relationship with environmental degradation in Lebanon. The results show that economic development has positive but insignificant relationship with environmental degradation. The results show that secondary school education has negative and significant relationship with environmental degradation in Lebanon. The estimated results show that for reducing environmental degradation, the Lebanese government should increase energy efficient methods of production as well as increase the educational level. |
| Keywords: | economic development, population density, environmental degradation |
| JEL: | O1 Q53 Q56 |
| Date: | 2016 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:74286&r=env |
| By: | Ida Kubiszewski, Sharolyn J. Anderson, Robert Costanza and Paul C. Sutton |
| Abstract: | We estimated the current value of ecosystem services for terrestrial ecosystems in 47 countries in the Asia and the Pacific region. Currently, these provide $US14 trillion/yr. in benefits, most of which are non-marketed and do not show up in GDP. We also estimated the changes in terrestrial ecosystem services value for scenarios to the year 2050, built around the four Great Transition Initiative archetypes: (1) Market Forces (MF); (2) Fortress World (FW); (3) Policy Reform (PR); and (4) Great Transition (GT). Results show that under the MF and FW scenarios the ecosystem services value in the region continues to decline from $14 trillion/yr in 2011 to $11 and $9 trillion/yr in 2050, respectively. In the PR scenario, the value is maintained around $14 Trillion/yr in 2050 and in the GT scenario it is significantly restored to $17 Trillion/yr. We also show more detailed maps and results for 8 selected countries in the region (Bhutan, China, India, Philippines, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam) and compare our results with a previous national study of Bhutan. Our results indicate that adopting a set of policies like those assumed in the GT scenario would greatly enhance human wellbeing and sustainability in the region. |
| Keywords: | ecosystems services, scenario planning, sustainable development, well-being, ecosystem service mapping |
| Date: | 2016–10–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:een:appswp:201629&r=env |
| By: | Bernard Caillaud (PSE - Paris School of Economics, PSE - Paris-Jourdan Sciences Economiques - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - INRA - Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique - EHESS - École des hautes études en sciences sociales - ENS Paris - École normale supérieure - Paris - École des Ponts ParisTech (ENPC)); Gabrielle Demange (PSE - Paris School of Economics, PSE - Paris-Jourdan Sciences Economiques - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - INRA - Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique - EHESS - École des hautes études en sciences sociales - ENS Paris - École normale supérieure - Paris - École des Ponts ParisTech (ENPC)) |
| Abstract: | This paper analyzes the joint design of fiscal and cap-and-trade instruments in climate policies under uncertainty. Whether the optimal mechanism is a mixed policy (with some firms subject to a tax and others to a cap-and-trade) or a uniform one (with all firms subject to the same instrument) depends on parameters reecting preferences, production, and, most importantly, the stochastic structure of the shocks affecting the economy. This framework is then used to address the issue of the non-cooperative design of climate regulation systems in various areas worldwide under uncertainty. We characterize the resulting ineficiency, we show how the Pareto argument in favor of merging ETS of different regions is reinforced under uncertainty, and we discuss the non-cooperative design of mixed systems. |
| Keywords: | climate policies,cap-and-trade mechanisms,emission tax,uncertainty |
| Date: | 2016–07 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:wpaper:halshs-01112185&r=env |
| By: | Schwarzer, Helmut.; Van Panhuys, Clara.; Diekmann, Katharina. |
| Keywords: | social protection, sustainable development, environmental management, community development, poverty alleviation, case study, Brazil, China, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, South Africa, protection sociale, développement durable, gestion de l'environnement, développement communautaire, lutte contre la pauvreté, étude de cas, Brésil, Chine, Costa Rica, Equateur, Mexique, Afrique du Sud, protección social, desarrollo sostenible, gestión ambiental, desarrollo de la comunidad, lucha contra la pobreza, estudio de casos, Brasil, China, Costa Rica, Ecuador, México, Sudáfrica |
| Date: | 2016 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ilo:ilowps:994903813402676&r=env |
| By: | Laura Centemeri (IMM - Institut Marcel Mauss - EHESS - École des hautes études en sciences sociales - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique); Gildas Renou (SAGE - Sociétés, Acteurs, Gouvernement en Europe - Université de Strasbourg - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique) |
| Abstract: | L’objectif de cette contribution est, d’abord, de présenter l’oeuvre de l'économiste catalan Joan Martinez-Alier, un des fondateurs de l'économie écologique, en la situant dans sa trajectoire politique et intellectuelle. Il s’agira ensuite de développer une réflexion plus large concernant le type de pluralisme des valeurs qui est en question dans une critique écologique ayant l’ambition d’être attentive aux inégalités environnementales mais également à la pluralité des modes qu’ont les humains de tenir à l’environnement. |
| Keywords: | transition écologique, décroissance, valeur, critique écologique, mouvements sociaux,economie écologique, justice environnementale, inégalités environnementales |
| Date: | 2016–07–08 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:wpaper:hal-01342220&r=env |
| By: | Johanna Etner (EconomiX - UPOND - Université Paris Ouest Nanterre La Défense - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Climate Economics Chair - University Paris Dauphine); Natacha Raffin (EconomiX - UPOND - Université Paris Ouest Nanterre La Défense - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Climate Economics Chair - University Paris Dauphine); Thomas Seegmuller (AMSE - Aix-Marseille School of Economics - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - AMU - Aix Marseille Université - ECM - Ecole Centrale de Marseille - EHESS - École des hautes études en sciences sociales) |
| Abstract: | We develop an overlapping generations model of growth, in which agents differ through their ability to procreate. Based on epidemiological evidence, we assume that pollution is a cause of this health heterogeneity, affecting sperm quality. Nevertheless, agents with impaired fertility may incur health treatments in order to increase their chances of parenthood. In this set-up, we analyse the dynamic behaviour of the economy and characterise the situation reached in the long run. Then, we determine the optimal solution that prevails when a social planner maximises a Millian utilitarian criterion and propose a set of available economic instruments to decentralise the optimal solution. We underscore that to correct for both the externalities of pollution and the induced-health inefficiency, it is necessary to tax physical capital while it requires to overall subsidy mostly harmed agents within the economy. Hence, we argue that fighting against the sources of an altered reproductive health is more relevant than directly inciting agents to incur health treatments. |
| Keywords: | pollution,growth,fertility,health |
| Date: | 2016–07 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:wpaper:halshs-01346098&r=env |
| By: | Max, Wendy PhD; Sung, Hai-Yen PhD; Lightwood, James PhD |
| Keywords: | Medicine and Health Sciences, Social and Behavioral Sciences |
| Date: | 2016–10–11 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cdl:ctcres:qt9w38h5rn&r=env |
| By: | Louis-Gaëtan Giraudet (CIRED, Ecole des PontsParisTech); Céline Guivarch (CIRED) |
| Abstract: | We extend the canonical dynamic game of global warming to capture three stylized facts: (i) while most countries are expected to suffer damages, some might enjoy short-term benefits; (ii) countries’ exposure to impacts bears little relation to their mitigation capabilities; (iii) some adaptation technologies, such as air conditioning, may exacerbate warming. These sources of asymmetry add free driving to the classical free riding problem. This opens up possibilities for excessive mitigation in a non-cooperative regime, even though damages outweigh benefits. Moreover, it restricts the possibilities of Pareto improvements without transfers. Finally, it can provide a rationale for differentiating Pigouvian prices across countries. |
| Keywords: | Differential game, Global warming, Public goods, Mitigation, Adaptation |
| JEL: | C73 H41 Q54 |
| Date: | 2016–09 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fae:wpaper:2016.26&r=env |
| By: | Cathrine Ulla Jensen (Department of Food and Resource Economics, University of Copenhagen) |
| Abstract: | This paper investigates how household demand for access to nature varies across a Danish housing market. I use conditional quantile regressions to estimate the implicit price for a change in nature area conditional on the home price. If there are systematic differences in the willingness to pay for nature across the house price distribution, a conditional mean will systematically under- or over-predict the impact for certain priced homes. In addition, this heterogeneity can be of interest to policy-makers as a potential indicator of the distributional profile associated with a given policy. This study investigates this question by employing both standard spatial econometrics and spatial quantile regressions. I find that nature in the vicinity of the home is perceived as an amenity across the entire market. This result is robust to different spatial controls. What is not robust is the size and the profile of the price premium. There is a large correlation between the income level within a neighborhood and the level of outdoor recreation. Controlling for unobserved quality through fixed effects reveals that the price premium increases with prices, but when controlling for the general price level using the trade price of neighboring homes (a lag), the price premium becomes constant. Controlling for local neighborhood affluence and unobserved quality on a larger scale yields the same results as the spatial lag term but with a more robust model due to the absence of endogeneity. The paper offers a discussion of this discrepancy and relates it to the more general discussion of controlling for spatial dependence. |
| Keywords: | Hedonic pricing, Spatial econometrics, Quantile regression, Pooled cross-section, Green space |
| JEL: | R20 Q26 Q51 |
| Date: | 2016–10 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:foi:wpaper:2016_09&r=env |
| By: | Silvia Liliana CALDERÓN DÍAZ; Carolina ZULUAGA PRADA; Juliana BARRIENTOS LÓPEZ; German David ROMERO OTALORA; Javier Eduardo ROJAS CALA; Rosanna Cecilia OVALLE VENGOECHEA; Lina María IBATÁ |
| Abstract: | El presente documento estima el valor de los dividendos ambientales que obtendría el país con la implementación de la paz. Dichos dividendos se calcularon utilizando la metodología de costos evitados, la cual parte de valorar los costos asociados a los impactos ambientales que genera el conflicto –para este caso en temas de deforestación, minería ilegal y derrames de petróleo- que bajo un escenario de paz la sociedad no asume. Las estimaciones realizadas se hicieron para dos escenarios uno conservador y otro optimista. El primero asume una tasa de deforestación promedio igual a la que tienen los municipios sin conflicto, un uso de mercurio controlado igual al del promedio de América Latina y el cese total de los ataques a la infraestructura petrolera. El escenario optimista supone una serie de programas nacionales que maximizarían los dividendos y llevarían a lograr una tasa neta de deforestación igual a cero, a la eliminación por completo del uso del mercurio en la minería y al cese total de derrames de petróleo. Los resultados encontrados bajo el escenario conservador indican que los dividendos ambientales para Colombia serían del orden de 2,7 billones de pesos mientras, que para el escenario optimista se alcanzarían los 7,1 billones de pesos. Los beneficios no son homogéneos para todo el territorio y, por tanto, éstos dependerán de los retos y oportunidades que tenga cada región. |
| Keywords: | Dividendos Ambientales, Paz, Costos Evitados |
| JEL: | Q38 Q51 Q52 J18 |
| Date: | 2016–10–06 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:col:000118:015122&r=env |
| By: | Sergei Aseev; Konstantin Besov; Serguei Kaniovski (WIFO) |
| Abstract: | The paper offers a complete analysis of the welfare-maximising capital investment and resource depletion policies in the Dasgupta-Heal-Solow-Stiglitz (DHSS) model with capital depreciation and any returns to scale. We establish a general existence result and show that an optimal admissible policy may not exist if the output elasticity of the resource equals 1. We characterise the optimal policies by applying an appropriate version of the Pontryagin maximum principle for infinite-horizon optimal control problems. We conclude the paper with an economic interpretation and a discussion of the welfare-maximising policies. |
| Keywords: | optimal growth, non-constant returns to scale, exhaustible resources |
| Date: | 2016–10–04 |
| URL: | http://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wfo:wpaper:y:2016:i:525&r=env |