|
on Agricultural Economics |
| By: | Boser, Anna; Caylor, Kelly; Larsen, Ashley; Pascolini-Campbell, Madeleine; Reager, John T; Carleton, Tamma |
| Abstract: | Efficiently managing agricultural irrigation is vital for food security today and into the future under climate change. Yet, evaluating agriculture's hydrological impacts and strategies to reduce them remains challenging due to a lack of field-scale data on crop water consumption. Here, we develop a method to fill this gap using remote sensing and machine learning, and leverage it to assess water saving strategies in California's Central Valley. We find that switching to lower water intensity crops can reduce consumption by up to 93%, but this requires adopting uncommon crop types. Northern counties have substantially lower irrigation efficiencies than southern counties, suggesting another potential source of water savings. Other practices that do not alter land cover can save up to 11% of water consumption. These results reveal diverse approaches for achieving sustainable water use, emphasizing the potential of sub-field scale crop water consumption maps to guide water management in California and beyond. |
| Keywords: | Hydrology, Environmental Sciences, Earth Sciences, Zero Hunger |
| Date: | 2024–01–01 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:cdl:agrebk:qt81j397nv |
| By: | Aladesuru, Damilola T.; Kasule, James B.; Bosch, Christine; Kato, Edward; Ringler, Claudia; Birner, Regina |
| Abstract: | While video extension is a recognized means to overcome the challenges posed by traditional agricultural advisory services, adoption has been limited. This paper presents two case studies conducted in Kenya and Uganda that explore the potential of video extension for promoting climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices. In Kenya, videos were rolled out by GROOTS Kenya, which predominantly serves women farmers. In Uganda, the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries’ Agricultural Extension Services implemented the video rollout, focusing on both women and men farmers. We used qualitative research linked to both video rollouts to understand the benefits and challenges linked to the intervention. We also compared the implementation strategies used in the two countries to evaluate the suitability of videos as a “best fit†advisory provision tool. Both women and men farmers enjoyed watching the videos. They improved farmers' access to information, resulting in increased knowledge and adoption of CSA practices. Costs involved in some practices affected their adoption as did lack of intrahousehold decision-making power, particularly for women. In some cases, infrastructural challenges complicated the video showings. The findings underscore the importance of complementing traditional agricultural extension with interactive and context-specific video content without replacing and neglecting other modes of extension, as well as the need for political support to ensure the scalability and long-term success of video extension initiatives. |
| Keywords: | agricultural extension; climate-smart agriculture; decision making; farmers; women; Kenya; Uganda; Africa; Eastern Africa |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:ifprid:2276 |
| By: | Kane, Papa Abdoulaye; Barry, Mamadou Bobo; Eissler, Sarah; Tall, Thiané; Camara, Astou Diao; Sall, Moussa; Fass, Simone; Bryan, Elizabeth; Ringler, Claudia |
| Abstract: | Goats are an important source of income, nutrition and resilience in Senegal. This study assesses opportunities to strengthen women’s agency, increase resilience to climate change, and improve nutrition along the various stages of goat value chains from the acquisition of feed resources and other inputs to processing, marketing and consumption of various goat products. The qualitative study finds that even though goats are more climate resilient than other livestock, climate change impacts on goat production and productivity are increasingly felt, particularly through impacts on feed resources. The study identified opportunities to strengthen women’s roles along the goat value chain, particularly in goat production and, to a lesser extent, in processing of goat products. Women and their families also benefit from the consumption of goat milk and women have some degree of control over income from the sale of goat products. Strengthening women’s agency in these nutrient-rich and relatively climate-resilient value chains will require improving their access to land resources and better animal feeds, supporting women’s groups and building women’s capacity for processing and marketing goat products, improving access to electricity for cold storage of goat products, and raising awareness regarding the nutritional benefits of goat products, especially for women and children. |
| Keywords: | climate change; goats; nutrition; climate resilience; value chains; women’s empowerment; gender; Africa; Western Africa; Senegal |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:ifprid:2274 |
| By: | Mélanie Gittard (PSE - Paris School of Economics - UP1 - Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne - ENS-PSL - École normale supérieure - Paris - PSL - Université Paris Sciences et Lettres - EHESS - École des hautes études en sciences sociales - ENPC - École des Ponts ParisTech - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - INRAE - Institut National de Recherche pour l’Agriculture, l’Alimentation et l’Environnement, PJSE - Paris Jourdan Sciences Economiques - UP1 - Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne - ENS-PSL - École normale supérieure - Paris - PSL - Université Paris Sciences et Lettres - EHESS - École des hautes études en sciences sociales - ENPC - École des Ponts ParisTech - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - INRAE - Institut National de Recherche pour l’Agriculture, l’Alimentation et l’Environnement, CIRED - Centre International de Recherche sur l'Environnement et le Développement - Cirad - Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement - EHESS - École des hautes études en sciences sociales - AgroParisTech - ENPC - École des Ponts ParisTech - Université Paris-Saclay - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique) |
| Abstract: | Western African Sahel faced severe droughts in the 1980s, affecting agricultural production and food security. In recent decades, farmers have faced uncertainty in the timing and amount of rainy seasons and are confronted with erratic rainfall with high interannual variations. Can the experience of past dry events reduce the vulnerability of households to short-term rainfall shocks? In this paper, I match three waves of panel household surveys focusing on agriculture in Nigeria (GHS, from 2010-2016) and high temporal resolution precipitation data set from the Climate Hazard Center (CHIRPS). I show evidence of the extreme importance of the long-dry period of the 1980s and identify more recent droughts in 2013/2015, which are in line with a change in the characteristics of the rainfall trends. Through a two-way-fixed effect strategy, I exploit the spatial variation of the exposition to the 2015 drought. First, I look at the short-term effects of being hit by a drought on agricultural production and food security indicators. I show that being hit by a drought decreases yields by 14%, and decreases the food diversity of households by around 1%. Second, I look at the impacts' heterogeneity according to the plot's experience, using the timing of the year of acquisition of the plot. I compare short-term droughts' effects on households that acquired their first plot before the 1980s dry period to those that acquired it after. Results suggest that acquiring the land before 1985 attenuates the harmful effects of a climate shock, as these particular households have only a 3% reduction in their yields due to the 2015 drought. This is especially the case when households were severely hit in the 1980s. This result might suggest that having a long-lasting experience under extreme dry events on cultivated land reduces vulnerability to rainfall variability. |
| Keywords: | Nigeria, Droughts, Climate Change, Agricultural Production, Adaptation |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:ciredw:halshs-04685420 |
| By: | Diao, Xinshen; Jones, Eleanor; Pauw, Karl; Thurlow, James; Xu, Wenqian |
| Abstract: | Agricultural transformation, in broad terms, is the process during which the agricultural sector develops from a low-productivity, subsistence-oriented sector to a modern, commercially oriented one. It typically involves adopting advanced technologies and more sustainable and efficient production practices, and results in higher agricultural productivity per worker, agricultural diversification into high-value crops, and rising rural incomes. Importantly, agricultural transformation is also seen as a catalyst for broader economic development and a structural shift towards industrialization in developing economies. Given the central role of agricultural transformation in driving such change, as well as its contribution to development objectives such as poverty reduction, improvements in diet quality, and environmental sustainability, it is useful to measure and monitor progress on agricultural transformation. This is the purpose of the Agricultural Transformation Index (ATI), a newly developed composite index constructed from four indicators of progress on agricultural transformation: staple crop productivity, crop diversification, agricultural labor productivity, and food system expansion. Together, these indicators, which are calculated from publicly available, global datasets, can be used to examine progress over time on global, regional, and national scales. In addition to being transparent and easy to interpret, the index can be updated annually as new data is released. As demonstrated in this study, the ATI produces a plausible ranking of countries and is highly correlated with indicators of overall economic wellbeing such as GDP per capita or household-specific welfare measures such as poverty or the prevalence of undernourishment. The ATI is not only useful for identifying countries in need of support from international development partners or tracking their progress on agricultural transformation but can also highlight specific areas of agricultural transformation where technical or investment support might be directed by governments or their partners. |
| Keywords: | agricultural transformation; economic development; productivity; structural adjustment |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:ifprid:2275 |
| By: | Suarez, Ronny |
| Abstract: | This paper provides statistical evidence of a positive correlation between anomaly precipitation and the variation of planted hectares of rice. Panamanian farmers reduce planted areas of rice when they experience lower levels of rain. |
| Keywords: | climate change |
| JEL: | Q00 Q5 |
| Date: | 2024–10–07 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:122315 |
| By: | Koundouri, Phoebe; Alamanos, Angelos; Sachs, Jeffrey |
| Abstract: | Multiple challenges have emerged over the last decades, threatening human, socio-economic and environmental systems. Climate change impacts, degradation of limited natural resources, unsustainable demand, production and consumption practices, diseases, crises in the energy, food and biodiversity sectors, economic recessions, and many more, interconnected dynamic threats, require coordinated and efficient solutions. Under the UN's Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) we developed the Global Climate Hub (GCH), an international initiative for tackling such challenges. After 12 years of SDSN's action, we present the structure and ways of operation of the GCH, along with the principles that allow it to successfully bridge holistic scientific approaches with the society, for implementing fair and publicly acceptable sustainable pathways. The GCH's five innovations are analyzed, namely, the use of integrated 'cutting-edge models', with the support of 'digital AI-driven data-handling infrastructure', for the development of case-specific 'socio-economic narratives' and 'stakeholder engagement' for co-designing solutions. Moreover, the nine units of the GCH are scrutinized in terms of scope, methods, and tools. These cover a wide range of expertise in digital applications, climate science, energy, transport, land, water, food, biodiversity, and marine systems, public health, solutions' application, policy, finance, labour markets, participatory approaches, education and training. This contribution provides a complete picture of a global, developing - and successful so far - vision for a climate-neutral, resilient and sustainable world. |
| Keywords: | Innovation, Innovating for Sustainability, sustainability, Climate Change, SDSN, UN, multiple challenges, socio-economic |
| JEL: | H0 O2 Z1 Z18 |
| Date: | 2024–02 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:121978 |
| By: | Koundouri, Phoebe; Papayiannis, Georgios I.; Vassilopoulos, Achilleas; Yannacopoulos, Athanasios N. |
| Abstract: | This study presents a novel approach to assessing food security risks at the national level, employing a probabilistic scenario-based framework that integrates both Shared Socioeco-nomic Pathways (SSP) and Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP). This innovative method allows each scenario, encompassing socio-economic and climate factors, to be treated as a model capable of generating diverse trajectories. This approach offers a more dynamic understanding of food security risks under varying future conditions. The paper details the methodologies employed, showcasing their applicability through a focused analysis of food security challenges in Egypt and Ethiopia, and underscores the importance of considering a spectrum of socio-economic and climatic factors in national food security assessments. |
| Keywords: | food security risk, model uncertainty, probabilistic projections risk quantification, Representative Concentration Pathways, Shared Socioeconomic Pathways |
| JEL: | H0 H5 I3 L1 O1 |
| Date: | 2023–12–07 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:122007 |
| By: | Joseph Ikechukwu Uduji (University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria); Elda Nduka Okolo-Obasi (University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria); Justitia Odinaka Nnabuko (University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria); Geraldine Egondu Ugwuonah (University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria); Josaphat Uchechukwu Onwumere (University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria) |
| Abstract: | Purpose -The purpose of this paper is to critically examine the multinational oil companies’ (MOCs) corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives in Nigeria. Its special focus is to investigate the impact of the global memorandum of understanding (GMoU) on mainstreaming gender sensitivity in cash crop market supply chains in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Design/ methodology/ approach – This paper adopts an explanatory research design, with a mixed method to answer the research questions and test the hypotheses. A total of 1200 rural women respondents were sampled across the Niger Delta region. Findings - Results from the use of a combined logit model and propensity score matching indicate a significant relationship between GMoU model and mainstreaming gender sensitivity in cash crop market supply chains in the Niger Delta. Research limitations/implications – This study implies that MOCs’ CSR intervention that improve women’s access to land and encourage better integration of food markets through improved roads and increased mobile networks, would enable women to engage in cash crop production. Originality/ value – This research contributes to gender debate in agricultural value chain from a CSR perspective in developing countries and rational for demands for social projects by host communities. It concludes that business has an obligation to help in solving problems of public concern. |
| Keywords: | Gender, cash crop market, supply chains, corporate social responsibility, multinational oil companies, sub-Saharan Africa |
| Date: | 2024–01 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:exs:wpaper:24/026 |
| By: | Dolabella, Marcelo |
| Abstract: | Private actors have been actively working on standards that certify products and their production processes to minimize negative externalities. The number of Voluntary Sustainability Standards (VSS) has been increasing over the last few decades, raising interest in understanding their impact on trade flows. Standards governing the production of agricultural commodities are especially crucial for developing countries as these goods often constitute a significant portion of their exports. Using a structural gravity model, we investigate how VSS certification affects exports for developing countries across eight highly traded commodities, and twelve VSS certification schemes from 2013 to 2021. Our analysis highlights how these effects differ for Latin America and the Caribbean compared to the rest of the world. The results indicate a positive and significant effect of VSS certification on exports, with on average a one percent increase in VSS coverage, resulting in a 1.86% increase in export value. We observed positive and significant impacts on bananas, palm oil, tea, and cotton exports. Our findings also suggest that trade gains are larger for lower-income exporters trading with high-income destinations, suggesting an important role of VSS in reducing information asymmetries. Also, we observe that the proliferation of standards might reduce the positive effects associated with VSS adoption for the main agricultural producers. |
| Keywords: | Voluntary sustainability standards;Private standards;International trade;developing countries |
| JEL: | F18 Q17 Q18 Q56 |
| Date: | 2024–06 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:idb:brikps:13764 |
| By: | Kelly Cobourn; Christopher O'Donnell; Jesús Antón; Ben Henderson |
| Abstract: | This paper proposes an analytical framework to calculate an environmentally sustainable productivity index (ESPI) to address the multiple challenges faced at present by food systems. Using this framework, an empirical analysis covering 28 countries (anonymised) over three decades examines sustainable productivity performance including three environmental externalities: greenhouse gas emissions, and nitrogen and phosphorus surpluses. The results illustrate how the framework could be used to identify trends in environmentally sustainable productivity within and across countries. While this framework is flexible and can accommodate multiple environmental variables, its application requires appropriate and comparable data on agriculture production and related environmental performance, selecting methods to measure and aggregate groups of outputs and inputs into the productivity index, and choosing a weight for environmental externalities relative to commodity outputs. Sensitivity analyses, as well as comparisons with other approaches to measure sustainable productivity can be undertaken using this framework to ensure the robustness of the measurement. By supporting cross-section comparisons, the ESPI also has the potential to be used in statistical analysis to identify the economic and policy drivers of sustainable productivity performance. |
| Keywords: | Environmental sustainability, Index theory, Total Factor Productivity |
| JEL: | C43 D24 O44 Q18 |
| Date: | 2024–10–23 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:oec:agraaa:213-en |
| By: | Koundouri, Phoebe; Halkos, George; Landis, Conrad; Dellis, Konstantinos; Stratopoulou, Artemis; Plataniotis, Angelos; Chioatto, Elisa |
| Abstract: | This paper refers to the valuation of European, Marine and Fresh Water Ecosystem Services. Using a meta-regression approach, we estimate the Annual Willingness to Pay (WTP) for several classifications of the ecosystem services and various biogeographical and marine regions across all twenty-seven EU markets. Moreover, we explore the correlation between WTP and the national level of achievement of the 17 SDGs, with particular focus on SDG 14 - Life Below Water. Results indicate that regulating services of marine and freshwater ecosystems are ranked high and that in almost 63% of the European countries, the WTP for the improvement of the marine & freshwater ecosystem is high and exceeds estimates for terrestrial ecosystems. Valuing ecosystem services and link them to the Sustainable Development Goals, we find that marine ecosystems are mainly positively correlated to SDGs 2, 12, 13, 14 and 17, while a high MWTP value is assigned to specific SDG14 individual indicators like fish caught from overexploited or collapsed stocks and fish caught that are then discarded. Overall, results indicate that societies attributing greater value to ecosystem services mark greater progress towards the implementation of SDGs and SDG 14 in particular. |
| Keywords: | Valuation, Sustainable Development Goals, Ecosystem Services, Meta-Regression, Marine, Freshwater |
| JEL: | Q5 |
| Date: | 2023–03 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:122023 |
| By: | Lukas Vashold (Department of Economics, Vienna University of Economics and Business); Gustav Pirich (Department of Economics, Vienna University of Economics and Business); Maximilian Heinze (Department of Economics, Vienna University of Economics and Business); Nikolas Kuschnig (Department of Economics, Vienna University of Economics and Business) |
| Abstract: | Minerals are essential to fuel the green transition, can foster local employment and facilitate economic development. However, their extraction is linked to several negative social and environmental externalities. These are particularly poorly understood in a development context, undermining efforts to address and internalize them. In this paper, we exploit the discontinuous locations of mines along rivers and their basins to identify causal effects on agricultural yields in Africa. We find considerable impacts on vegetation and yields downstream, which are mediated by water pollution and only dissipate slowly with distance. Our findings suggest that pollution from mines may play a role in the limited adoption of intensive agriculture. They underscore an urgent need for domestic regulations and international governance to limit negative externalities from mining in vulnerable regions. |
| Keywords: | pollution, agriculture, river basin, mining, earth observation |
| JEL: | Q53 O13 Q15 C23 |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:wiw:wiwwuw:wuwp368 |
| By: | Koundouri, Phoebe; Halkos, George; Landis, Conrad; Alamanos, Angelos |
| Abstract: | The significance of the SDGs lies in their holistic, global and interdisciplinary nature. But this nature at the same time poses significant challenges, as it is difficult to bridge the environmental with the socio-economic aspects of SDGs, in theory, practical application and policymaking. SDG14 on “life below water” consists of these aspects, as it refers to a natural/environmental system, supporting several economic activities and values, and associated with strong social and cultural characteristics. The main challenges for the achievement of a sustainable life below water are analyzed, and ways forward are discussed. Holistic and well-coordinated approaches based on systems thinking are necessary. Moreover, we argue on the role of environmental economics, as tools that can bridge environmental and socio-economic aspects, towards more accurate and insightful sustainability reporting. In particular, the potential of environmental valuation as a means to better inform SDG policies, is discussed, using the example of SDG14. The currently established frameworks for Country’s Sustainability Reporting, lack metrics focusing on the economic impact of the environment and the ecosystem services’ degradation or restoration rates, including ocean and marine ecosystems. Acknowledging and quantifying the costs and the benefits of ocean and marine ecosystems can lead to more effective interventions (ocean pollution prevention, climate change mitigation, fishing exploitation, biodiversity and coral reefs preservation), and to a better understanding of the human-environmental dynamics strengthening thus coordinated management and cooperation. |
| Keywords: | Sustainability, SDG14, Environmental Valuation, Ecosystem Services, Sustainability Reporting Frameworks |
| JEL: | F3 G3 |
| Date: | 2023–10 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:122009 |
| By: | Kamelamela, Katie L.; Chamberlain, James; Lehman, Ashley D.; Sprecher, Irene; Friday, James B.; Ticktin, Tamara |
| Abstract: | The Hawaiian Islands are an isolated archipelago in the Pacific Ocean with diverse forests covering 1.5 million ac—36 percent of Hawaiʻi’s total land area. These forests produce wood for local use and support trade, yet large-scale timber production has never been significant in Hawaiʻi. In contrast, nontimber forest products (NTFPs), have been foundational to the culture and economy of the state throughout history and continue to be elemental to contemporary society. The rich variety of NTFPs sourced from Hawaiian forests can be observed at diverse social events and informal gatherings. Species used as NTFPs are harvested for a wide range of reasons, including food, medicine, art, textiles, floral garments, floral displays, weaving, and cultural ceremonies. They are harvested and used by people of all ages and socioeconomic classes and support cultural heritage, identity, and connection to nature. Despite these values, there is little information on the reliance, variety, and amounts of NTFPs harvested from Hawaiian forests. Documenting the types, amounts, spatial distribution of harvesting, and current and projected demand and uses for NTFPs is critical to understanding the management needs of these forests and their social, ecological, and economic values to Hawaiʻi residents. This study used multiple methods to document NTFPs, their uses, and significance. Methods included summarizing state collection permits, interviewing and surveying stakeholders, and observing uses at cultural events. We identified more than 140 plant species harvested and used as NTFPs. Thirty-eight percent were native or endemic to Hawaiʻi. Almost all the permits issued by the state were for personal use. Interviews and surveys indicated a strong link between product use and people’s connections to spiritual values, cultural rights, and the land. We found that endemic species, such as maile (Alyxia stellata), palapalai (Microlepia strigosa), ʻōhiʻa lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), and koa (Acacia koa) had high market value, were under extreme pressure, and would benefit as priority targets for management, conservation, and nature-based development. Findings from this study could guide management plans and actions to conserve Hawaiʻi’s vast forest diversity and cultural economy. |
| Keywords: | Land Economics/Use, Marketing, Resource /Energy Economics and Policy, Sustainability |
| Date: | 2023–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:usdami:347426 |
| By: | Andy Forse (University of Portsmouth); Benjamin M. Drakeford (University of Portsmouth); Pierre Failler (University of Portsmouth) |
| Abstract: | Abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear (ALDFG) poses a threat to sustainable fisheries management through environmental impacts including ghost fishing. Biodegradable fishing gear (BFG) has the potential to mitigate the ghost fishing impact of ALDFG however, fishing efficiency has been identified in various studies as one of the main limiting factors of BFG. We address the potential for higher market prices for BFG fish to offset the economic cost to fishers given the current technical shortcomings of BFG. We find that there is limited potential for BFG fish to achieve higher market prices, respondents were more likely to use the tag of ‘BFG fish’ as a factor to drive demand. Further research is, therefore, required to address the issues that culminate in reduced fishing efficiency and we conclude that BFG implementation is a technical problem and not an economic one. |
| Keywords: | Biodegradable fishing gear (BFG); Abandoned, lost or discarded fishing gear (ALDFG); Fisheries; Wholesale; Fishing efficiency |
| JEL: | Q18 Q22 Q56 |
| Date: | 2024–10–17 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pbs:ecofin:2024-06 |
| By: | Gorn, Anne-Katrin; Barissoul, Ayoub; Wieck, Christine |
| Abstract: | The CAP monitoring framework includes a wide range of policy indicators, covering output, results, context, and impact. In environmental policy sciences, the complexities of analysing policy instruments and indicators are well known and techniques like statistical pattern analysis and grouping indicators into "umbrella" or composite indicators are recommended to simplify analysis. These methods are less common in agricultural economics and political sciences. This working paper investigates methods for constructing umbrella indicators and presents a literature-based roadmap for their application to the CAP indicators. It demonstrates that these methods can be successfully applied not only in other scientific fields but also to CAP indicators. |
| Keywords: | Agricultural and Food Policy |
| Date: | 2024–09–01 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:uhgewp:347465 |
| By: | Amasha Sumanapala, SD; Naradda Gamage, SK |
| Abstract: | Community-based tourism (CBT) is a viable alternative to promoting sustainable rural development. In the same vein, sustainable rural development is possible by reinforcing the priority of local policies and increasing the involvement of local communities in the development process to achieve positive socio-economic and ecological-environmental impacts. Rural communities face numerous challenges, including economic limitations, socio-cultural preservation issues, and environmental degradation, which can hinder long-term Sustainability. CBT offers a solution by directly involving local communities in the planning and management of tourism, ensuring that economic benefits are equitably distributed, cultural heritage is preserved, and the natural environment is protected. By aligning tourism activities with the community’s socio-economic and environmental goals; CBT Can create a balanced framework for development. The review comes up with a conceptual framework that explores the role of CBT in enhancing sustainable rural development. Therefore, this proposal argues that CBT provides a steady income stream and straightens the resilience of rural communities by integrating sustainable practices into tourism, ultimately contributing to long-term sustainable rural development. |
| Keywords: | Community-Based Tourism, SDGs, Sustainable Rural Development, Sustainable Tourism Development |
| JEL: | O1 O18 R11 Z11 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:122229 |
| By: | Kym Anderson |
| Abstract: | Globalization may have reduced but certainly has not eliminated differences in national commodity cycles. This article examines the case of Australia’s wine industry. Over the past four decades, all annual indicators of that industry’s international competitiveness have traced a steep inverted V. This paper draws on recently compiled data to first summarize such indicators and contrast them with those of other key wine-exporting countries. It then offers a series of partial explanations for the industry’s sharp rise and then equally steep fall in its international competitiveness (and its several bumps along the way). The New Zealand and Californian wine industry’s prolonged expansions in particular are contrasted with Australia’s. Despite the current downturn in the industry’s fortunes, and notwithstanding the likelihood of further boom-slump cycles in the decades ahead, the paper concludes that a return to profitability is possible if vignerons and wine exporters were to raise their current rates of investments in R&D, quality improvements and promotion, and if the AUD remains relatively weak. |
| JEL: | D12 F15 L66 N10 |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pas:papers:2024-10 |
| By: | Fernando Martins; João Quelhas |
| Abstract: | This paper studies the price-setting behaviour in food products, using the microdata underlying the Portuguese Consumer Price Index (CPI). We document that, on average, more than onequarter of food prices changed every month and half displayed price spells shorter than 5.3 months. Positive price changes were more frequent and had a higher magnitude than price decreases. There is a strong heterogeneity across type of industry and outlet. We find that, from 2009 to 2019, food inflation was primarily driven by the frequency of price changes rather than the magnitude, and price changes were more frequent at the producer than at the consumer level, but in a lower magnitude. Finally, we report that frequency and magnitude estimates are higher when using daily online price data, meaning that intra-month patterns in price dynamics, not captured by the official inflation statistics, are relevant. |
| Keywords: | price stickiness, price-setting behaviour, consumer prices, microdata, inflation. |
| JEL: | E30 E31 D40 |
| Date: | 2024–10 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ise:remwps:wp03452024 |
| By: | Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences; Interagency Working Group for Farming Seaweeds and Seagrasses; Editors:; Price, Nichole N.; Rexroad, Caird; Quigley, Charlotte; Stamieszkin, Karen; Langton, Richard; Sipler, Rachel |
| Abstract: | Excerpts from the report: In 2019, the United States Congress charged the Secretary of Agriculture, in coordination with the Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, to establish a working group to conduct a comprehensive evaluation of U.S. seaweeds and seagrass farming, describing its current state, its potential to drive economic growth through production of livestock feeds and other commercial applications, and improve ocean health through deacidification. USDA partnered with Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences (BLOS), a global research institution located in East Boothbay, Maine, for assistance in collecting public input, providing subject matter expertise, and drafting a report to fulfill the Congressional mandate. In accordance with the fiscal year (FY) 2019 U.S. congressional appropriations bill, section 770, this document reports on (1) how kelp and seagrasses could help deacidify the oceans; (2) how emerging ocean farming practices could use seaweeds and seagrasses to provide a feedstock for agriculture and other commercial and industrial seaweeds and seagrasses that study (A) ocean deacidification; (B) the production of a feedstock for agriculture; and (C) how to develop scalable commercial applications to support a blue economy. |
| Keywords: | Climate Change, Crop Production/Industries, Environmental Economics and Policy, International Relations/Trade, Livestock Production/Industries, Research and Development/Tech Change/Emerging Technologies, Resource /Energy Economics and Policy, Sustainability |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:usdami:347311 |
| By: | Laura E. McCann; Jeffrey D. Michler; Maybin Mwangala; Osaretin Olurotimi; Natalia Estrada Carmona |
| Abstract: | Population pressure is speeding the rate of deforestation in Sub-Saharan Africa, increasing the cost of biomass cooking fuel, which over 80 percent of the population relies upon. Higher energy input costs for meal preparation command a larger portion of household spending which in turn induces families to focus their diet on quick cooking staples. We use a field experiment in Zambia to investigate the impact of solar cook stoves on meal preparation choices and expenditures on biomass fuel. Participants kept a detailed food diary recording every ingredient and fuel source used in preparing every dish at every meal for every day during the six weeks of the experiment. This produces a data set of 93, 606 ingredients used in the preparation of 30, 314 dishes. While treated households used the solar stoves to prepare around 40 percent of their dishes, the solar stove treatment did not significantly increase measures of nutritional diversity nor did treated households increase the number of dishes per meal or reduce the number of meals they skipped. However, treated households significantly reduced the amount of time and money spent on obtaining fuel for cooking. These results suggest that solar stoves, while not changing a household's dietary composition, does relax cooking fuel constraints, allowing households to prepare more meals by reducing the share of household expenditure that goes to meal preparation. |
| Date: | 2024–10 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:arx:papers:2410.02075 |
| By: | Shreya Biswas; Upasak Das; Sandhya Garg (Institute of Economic Growth, Delhi) |
| Abstract: | Forests are vital for environmental and health benefits, making forest management a top priority for policymakers. Using datasetsthat combine remote sensing forest data and temporal state assembly election information, we investigate the role of graduate politicians in promoting growth of forest cover in India. We employ regression discontinuity design using close elections between graduate and non-graduate politicians to tease out the causal effects. Our findings reveal a significant increase in forest cover growth in constituencies led by graduate politicians. On exploring the reasons, we find that higher aggregate demand for forest products across the country can be one of the drivers of the increase in forest growth. This increase in forest growth also explains why constituencies led by educated politicians may tend to show higher growth in economic activity and exhibit increased employment opportunities in forest-related industries. Nevertheless, we also provide suggestive evidence highlighting the possbility of environmental awareness among educated leaders driving their forestation efforts |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:awe:wpaper:463 |
| By: | Kazeem B. Ajide (University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria); Olorunfemi Y. Alimi (University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria); Simplice A. Asongu (Johannesburg, South Africa) |
| Abstract: | The research investigates the relationship between intelligence quotient (IQ) and environmental degradation, aiming to understand how cognitive abilities influence environmental outcomes across different nations and time periods. The objective is to examine the impact of intelligence quotient (IQ) on environmental indicators such as carbon emissions, ecological demand, and the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC), seeking insights to inform environmental policy and stewardship. The study utilizes statistical techniques including Ordinary Least Squares (OLS), Two Stage Least Squares (2SLS), and Iteratively Weighted Least Squares (IWLS) to analyze data from 147 nations over the years 2000 to 2017. These methods are applied to explore the relationship between IQ and environmental metrics while considering other relevant variables. The findings reveal unexpected positive associations between human intelligence quotient and carbon emissions, as well as ecological demand, challenging conventional notions of "delay discounting." Additionally, variations in the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis are identified across different pollutants, highlighting the roles of governance and international commitments in mitigating emissions. The study concludes by advocating for the adoption of a "delay discounting culture" to address environmental challenges effectively. It underscores the complex interactions between intelligence, governance, and population dynamics in shaping environmental outcomes, emphasizing the need for targeted policies to achieve sustainability objectives. |
| Keywords: | Human capital; intelligence quotient; population; output; carbon emission; EKC, World |
| JEL: | C52 O38 O40 Q50 I20 |
| Date: | 2024–01 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:exs:wpaper:24/017 |
| By: | Javier Marco Gracia (Department of Applied Economics, Universidad de Zaragoza and Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón, IA2); Pablo Delgado (Department of Applied Economics, Universidad de Zaragoza and Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón, IA2) |
| Abstract: | So far, studies on household income and consumption in Southern Europe have primarily focused on rural areas and factory workers. In this study, we aim to incorporate evidence of household income, considering the earnings of all household members and not just the male wage, using the population list of Zaragoza (Spain) from 1924. This population list is the first to systematically record the wages of all citizens regardless of their family role or age. Our results confirm that in 1924, most working-class households still required the labor of women and/or children to meet basic consumption needs (on average, they contributed nearly 60% of the household income). The findings also indicate that, despite a high percentage of agricultural workers (around 35% of households), agricultural day laborers were poorly paid compared to those in the industry. The seasonal nature of agricultural work likely made it even less attractive. Nevertheless, industrial wages were 18% higher than those of day laborers, and about 20% of unskilled workers were employed in industry. The relatively small size of the industrial sector and its modest wages may explain why Zaragoza was not yet a major attraction for immigrants from other regions, as it would become in the second half of the twentieth century. Employment in commerce, the military (with its associated risks), or professional occupations was associated with higher incomes, along with the ownership of production means or land. |
| Keywords: | : Wage, Urban, Household income, Purchasing capacity, Spain. |
| JEL: | N14 N34 N54 N64 J31 |
| Date: | 2024–01 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:zar:wpaper:dt2024-01 |
| By: | Bleck, Jaimie; Carillo, Lucia; Gottlieb, Jessica; Kosec, Katrina; Kyle, Jordan; Soumano, Moumouni |
| Abstract: | We surveyed 2, 919 community leaders across seven regions of Mali to provide insights on the prevalence and severity of shocks and crises across localities; which types of shocks and crises are most difficult from which to recover; the formal and informal ways in which local actors are involved in aid distribution systems; and the types of programming local actors view as most beneficial for promoting resilience. Despite increasing prevalence of conflict across localities, leaders predominately cited climate-related shocks as the most difficult from which to recover— especially droughts. We find that localities vary in the inclusiveness of local governance around aid distribution: while elected mayors are almost always involved, traditional leaders, women’s group and youth leaders in villages, civil servants, and civil society leaders are each involved in 40–60% of localities. We used both a budget allocation exercise and an experimental game in which we introduced the concept of anticipatory action (AA) programming—aid that is “triggered†by an early warning signal to arrive before a shock and mitigate its worst effects—to probe preferences over aid modality. We found that leaders see value in balancing investment across resilience programming (including AA) and humanitarian response, especially food aid. However, there is some important variation between village- and commune-level officials: village-level leaders are more likely to prioritize aid modalities that target households directly, like food aid and cash transfers, while commune-level leaders are more likely to prioritize risk prevention trainings. Our findings have important policy implications for promoting local resilience in Mali, including the importance of investing more in drought resilience, engaging actors at different levels of local governance who have different information and perspectives, and simultaneously investing in capacity-building around early warning system accuracy and dissemination. |
| Keywords: | governance; climate; conflicts; resilience; Africa; Western Africa; Mali |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fpr:ifprid:2272 |
| By: | Dusel, Sara; Wieck, Christine |
| Abstract: | Cost-benefit analysis and social welfare functions are two closely related methods to evaluate impacts of policies on humans (producers, consumers etc.) and animals. In cost-benefit analysis, the impacts on animals are currently either disclosed as intangible impacts or monetised from the human (anthropocentric) perspective through production costs, revenues and willingness to pay. Social welfare functions are more flexible to aggregate and trade-off impacts on animals, but they are not yet applied in practice. In the literature, advances have been made to monetise policy impacts from the animals’ (non-anthropocentric) perspective and to include animals in social welfare functions. Yet, policy analysts who seek to implement any of these approaches in practice face substantial challenges because the available studies differ considerably in the methodologies and underlying normative assumptions. We conduct a critical review of the scientific and grey literature with the aim to synthesise the available material, to facilitate an informed debate on conflicting normative assumptions, and to eventually guide the practical application of non-anthropocentric cost-benefit analysis and social welfare functions. The results of the critical review are presented in the form of a checklist that allows to better comprehend key steps of the methodologies. Step-by-step, the checklist gives an overview of the alternative options and normative assumptions in the literature, and points to any remaining research gaps. Beside the academic debate, this is relevant for practical policy analysts who need to make methodological choices for their policy questions at hand. |
| Keywords: | Agricultural and Food Policy |
| Date: | 2024–10–01 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:uhgewp:347466 |
| By: | Mélanie Gittard (PSE - Paris School of Economics - UP1 - Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne - ENS-PSL - École normale supérieure - Paris - PSL - Université Paris Sciences et Lettres - EHESS - École des hautes études en sciences sociales - ENPC - École des Ponts ParisTech - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - INRAE - Institut National de Recherche pour l’Agriculture, l’Alimentation et l’Environnement, PJSE - Paris Jourdan Sciences Economiques - UP1 - Université Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne - ENS-PSL - École normale supérieure - Paris - PSL - Université Paris Sciences et Lettres - EHESS - École des hautes études en sciences sociales - ENPC - École des Ponts ParisTech - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - INRAE - Institut National de Recherche pour l’Agriculture, l’Alimentation et l’Environnement, CIRED - Centre International de Recherche sur l'Environnement et le Développement - Cirad - Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement - EHESS - École des hautes études en sciences sociales - AgroParisTech - ENPC - École des Ponts ParisTech - Université Paris-Saclay - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique) |
| Abstract: | Since 2000, Kenya has experienced an increase in the frequency of droughts, significantly affecting agriculture and driving labor force migration. This paper investigates strategic migration patterns among farmers and pastoralists in response to repetitive droughts. I use fine-grained data that enables the capture of shortdistance migration and heterogeneity, combining satellite-based data on daily rainfalls (CHIRPS) with exhaustive censuses from 1989, 1999, and 2009. I use a two-way fixed-effect model to exploit the spatial variation in drought frequency across 2, 518 sub-locations, comparing their demographic growth according to the number of dryrainy seasons over each decade. First, I show that increased drought frequency triggers out-migration, as one additional drought decreases demographic growth by 1.7 p.p, equivalent to a 1% population decline. This result is consistent within the [15; 65] age group, excluding other demographic effects and confirming migration as the driving factor. The main contribution of this paper is the identification of different migration strategies across livelihoods. Rural areas dominated by pastoral activities experience significant out-migration, leading to a rural-rural shift from pastoral to agriculture-oriented regions. Herders' migration displays little heterogeneity, suggesting the migration of entire households and consistent with migration as a last resort. Agricultural rural areas are less vulnerable to drought and display significant heterogeneity. The results show the migration of the most educated individuals in the working age, while uneducated individuals are trapped in affected areas. This paper highlights the importance of using detailed data to understand diverse migration strategies, thereby facilitating the implementation of effective policies. |
| Keywords: | Kenya, Droughts, Migration, Population, Census data |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:ciredw:halshs-04685409 |
| By: | Hang Gao; Shuohua Yang; Xinli Liu |
| Abstract: | Weather parametric insurance relies on weather indices rather than actual loss assessments, enhancing claims efficiency, reducing moral hazard, and improving fairness. In the context of increasing climate change risks, despite growing interest and demand, , weather parametric insurance's market share remains limited due to inherent basis risk, which is the mismatch between actual loss and payout, leading to loss without payout or payout without loss. This paper proposes a novel empirical research using Monte Carlo simulations to test whether basis risk can be managed through diversification and hedged like other risks. Key findings include: Firstly, portfolio basis risk and volatility decrease as the number of contracts increases. Secondly, spatial relationships significantly impact basis risk, with risk levels correlating with the ratio between insured location, weather station, and disaster footprint radius, and thirdly, event severity does not significantly impact basis risk, suggesting that catastrophic disaster severity should not hinder parametric insurance development. |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:arx:papers:2409.16599 |
| By: | Gwenolé Le Velly (CEE-M - Centre d'Economie de l'Environnement - Montpellier - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - INRAE - Institut National de Recherche pour l’Agriculture, l’Alimentation et l’Environnement - Institut Agro Montpellier - Institut Agro - Institut national d'enseignement supérieur pour l'agriculture, l'alimentation et l'environnement - UM - Université de Montpellier); Philippe Delacote (BETA - Bureau d'Économie Théorique et Appliquée - AgroParisTech - UNISTRA - Université de Strasbourg - Université de Haute-Alsace (UHA) - Université de Haute-Alsace (UHA) Mulhouse - Colmar - UL - Université de Lorraine - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - INRAE - Institut National de Recherche pour l’Agriculture, l’Alimentation et l’Environnement, CEC - Chaire Economie du Climat - Université Paris Dauphine-PSL - PSL - Université Paris Sciences et Lettres); Rachel E Golden Kroner (Betty and Gordon Moore Center for Science and Oceans, World Wildlife Fund - R.N.I. Lago Preola e Gorghi Tondi); Derya Keles (BETA - Bureau d'Économie Théorique et Appliquée - AgroParisTech - UNISTRA - Université de Strasbourg - Université de Haute-Alsace (UHA) - Université de Haute-Alsace (UHA) Mulhouse - Colmar - UL - Université de Lorraine - CNRS - Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - INRAE - Institut National de Recherche pour l’Agriculture, l’Alimentation et l’Environnement, Chaire économie du climat - Chaire économie du climat); Alexander Pfaff (Duke University [Durham]) |
| Abstract: | Despite global calls to raise protection for nature, efforts proliferate to reduce the extent of, and restrictions in, protected areas (PAs) via legal changes to downgrade, downsize, or degazette PAs (PADDD). Protected area downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement studies have considered the tropics, despite significant data and relevance for the Global North, and focused on fixed proxies for economic opportunity cost. Given important political dynamics, we focus instead on the U.S. and shifts in political representation. We examine 2001-2018 federal PADDD events in the U.S., using panel data to control for all fixed factors. We study how elections that shift representatives and senators affect U.S. PADDD. Indeed, shifts at district, state, and national levels appear to influence PADDD. Specifically, shifts that put Republicans into office raised risks for PADDD events, especially proposals. Our empirical results highlight shifts in political power as an ongoing challenge to conservation, even after the establishment of protected areas. |
| Keywords: | conservation policy, elections, political economy, protected areas, United States |
| Date: | 2024 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:hal:journl:hal-04704372 |
| By: | Wichman, Casey (Resources for the Future) |
| Abstract: | Municipal water utilities choose rates to recover costs, encourage conservation, and reduce burdens on low-income customers, which may deviate from optimal two-part tariffs. Theory suggests that prices should equal marginal cost with fixed costs recovered via fixed fees or alternative tax revenues. Using rate structure and municipal finance data for more than 700 utilities, I show that prices are discounted severely for low levels of consumption within nonlinear rate structures, leading to suboptimal usage and budget deficits, particularly in poorer and smaller communities. Marginal-cost pricing corrects allocative inefficiencies, and equity and cost-recovery goals can be achieved through more progressive approaches to fixed costs, which are both highly regressive and a large share of total costs.Key Words: water pricing; utility management; natural monopolies; two-part tariffs; nonlinear pricing; affordability; municipal finance.JEL codes: D12, H23, L95, Q25 |
| Date: | 2024–10–15 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:rff:dpaper:dp-24-18 |
| By: | Oliver Zain Hannaoui; Hyeyoon Jung |
| Abstract: | As interest in understanding the economic impacts of climate change grows, the climate economics and finance literature has developed a number of indices to quantify climate risks. Various approaches have been employed, utilizing firm-level emissions data, financial market data (from equity and derivatives markets), or textual data. Focusing on the latter approach, we conduct descriptive analyses of six text-based climate risk indices from published or well-cited papers. In this blog post, we highlight the differences and commonalities across these indices. |
| Keywords: | climate; climate risk; climate risk index; textual analysis |
| JEL: | C1 G1 G2 G3 |
| Date: | 2024–10–07 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:fip:fednls:98933 |
| By: | Toossi, Saied; Todd, Jessica E.; Guthrie, Joanne; Ollinger, Michael |
| Abstract: | The National School Lunch Program (NSLP) is the Nation's second-largest food and nutrition assistance program, providing billions of meals to tens of millions of children and adolescents each year. USDA, Economic Research Service (ERS) periodically reports on NSLP policies and program operations, often after major changes to the program’s rules and guidelines. The last such report was published in 2008. Since then, the program has undergone major changes precipitated by the passage of the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010 and the effects of the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. Changing economic conditions may have also affected program spending and participation. This report provides an overview of the NSLP, documents major program changes since 2008, and examines historical trends and participant characteristics. It also summarizes research on the financial status of school food authorities, program participation, the nutritional quality of school lunches, and the impact of the program on the diets of children and adolescents. It concludes by discussing issues facing the program and research and data needs. |
| Keywords: | Agricultural and Food Policy, Food Consumption/Nutrition/Food Safety, Health Economics and Policy, Public Economics |
| Date: | 2024–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:ags:uersib:347312 |
| By: | Civitello, Carissa; Bosonac, Ashley |
| Abstract: | Target marketing leverages many human characteristics to persuade a specific consumer group best. These characteristics may include demographic, geographic, psychographic, and lifestyle traits. The psychographic factors considered in target marketing most commonly include an understanding of consumer values and behavior, not personality type. Few studies have analyzed how personality type, more specifically introversion and extraversion, might shape the outcome of a campaign. Introversion and extraversion have proven to have a pivotal role in other areas of business, such as the workplace, sales forces, and customer engagement. Drawing on that connection, this research hypothesized that these personality types might also impact consumer responses to a marketing campaign, particularly the promotional element. To answer these queries, multiple theories of personality were analyzed, including Jung’s Theory of Personality, and applied to previous research to introversion and extraversion in target marketing. Results reflected that there is considerable merit behind the pursuit of tailored advertisement campaigns that target introverts and extroverts respectively. Such strategies might increase metrics and create a more predictable and direct campaign. Subsequent research is suggested to further corroborate this conclusion. |
| Keywords: | Target marketing leverages many human characteristics to persuade a specific consumer group best. These characteristics may include demographic, geographic, psychographic, and lifestyle traits. The psychographic factors considered in target marketing most commonly include an understanding of consumer values and behavior, not personality type. Few studies have analyzed how personality type, more specifically introversion and extraversion, might shape the outcome of a campaign. Introversion and extraversion have proven to have a pivotal role in other areas of business, such as the workplace, sales forces, and customer engagement. Drawing on that connection, this research hypothesized that these personality types might also impact consumer responses to a marketing campaign, particularly the promotional element. To answer these queries, multiple theories of personality were analyzed, including Jung’s Theory of Personality, and applied to previous research to introversion and extraversion in target marketing. Results reflected that there is considerable merit behind the pursuit of tailored advertisement campaigns that target introverts and extroverts respectively. Such strategies might increase metrics and create a more predictable and direct campaign. Subsequent research is suggested to further corroborate this conclusion. |
| JEL: | G00 |
| Date: | 2024–08–09 |
| URL: | https://d.repec.org/n?u=RePEc:pra:mprapa:122223 |